Abstract
Bacterial infections cause a wide range of host immune disorders, resulting in local and systemic tissue damage. Antibiotics are pharmacological interventions for treating bacterial infections, but increased antimicrobial resistance and the delayed development of new antibiotics have led to a major global health threat, the so-called "superbugs". Bacterial infections consist of two processes: pathogen invasion and host immune responses. Developing nanotherapeutics to target these two pathways may be effective for eliminating bacteria and restoring host homeostasis, thus possibly finding new treatments for bacterial infections. This review offers new approaches for developing nanotherapeutics based on the pathogenesis of infectious diseases. We have discussed how nanoparticles target infectious microenvironments (IMEs) and how they target phagocytes to deliver antibiotics to eliminate intracellular pathogens. We also review a new concept-host-directed therapy for bacterial infections, such as targeting immune cells for the delivery of anti-inflammatory agents and vaccine developments using bacterial membrane-derived nanovesicles. This review demonstrates the translational potential of nanomedicine for improving infectious disease treatments.