Abstract
To better understand the phylogenomics of the hemagglutinin-neuraminidase (HN) gene and HN protein in human parainfluenza virus type 4 (HPIV4), we performed phylogenomic analyses using various bioinformatics methods. The main bioinformatics analyses included a time-scaled phylogeny, genetic distance assessments, and three-dimensional (3D) structure mapping of the HN protein with conformational epitope and selective pressure analyses. The time-scaled phylogenetic tree indicated that the most recent common ancestor of the HN gene emerged approximately 100 years ago. Additionally, the tree revealed two distinct clusters corresponding to HPIV4a and HPIV4b. The divergence times for the most recent common ancestors of the HN gene in HPIV4a and HPIV4b strains were estimated to be around 1993 and 1986, respectively. The evolutionary rates of the gene varied significantly between clusters, ranging from approximately 1.2 × 10(-3) to 8.7 × 10(-4) substitutions per site per year. Genetic distances within each cluster were relatively short (less than 0.04). Phylodynamic analyses demonstrated an increase in the genome population size around the year 2000. Structural analyses revealed that the active sites of the HN protein were located at the protein's head. Furthermore, the most conformational epitopes were located in adjacent active sites of the protein. These results suggested that reinfection may be unlikely to occur in the case of most HPIV4. Together, the HN gene and protein of HPIV4 strains isolated in Japan have undergone unique evolutionary changes. In addition, antibodies targeting the conformational epitopes of the HPIV4 HN protein may contribute to protection against the virus.