Abstract
Anticipated increases in the world population to 9 billion people will lead to increased demand for food. Dairy products represent one of the most sustainable animal sources of food protein because ruminants can utilize byproduct and forage feeds unsuitable for human consumption. Continued improvements in productivity will depend on deeper understanding of the biology of lactation, including developmental programming of tissues critical to that process. Although prenatal programming of postnatal phenotype is well documented for growth, behavior, and disease, there may also be instances of "programming" that last for a specific physiological stage (e.g., lactation). We distinguish between these 2 terms by the use of developmental programming to describe a permanent effect, whereas the more general term is used to describe nonpermanent impacts on the mammary gland. Despite this complexity, here we review the evidence that exposure to elevated temperature and humidity during late gestation can program reduced yields in the subsequent lactation, largely through effects at the mammary gland. Furthermore, we provide emerging evidence that adult capacity for milk synthesis can be programmed in the calf that dam is carrying by events during fetal life occurring 2 yr before. Specifically, calves born to dams that are heat stressed for the final 6 wk of gestation produce 19% less milk in lactation relative to calves from dams provided with evaporative cooling. Importantly, the increased milk yield in animals derived from dams under evaporative cooling occurred without a greater decline in BW that accompanies negative energy balance during early lactation. Therefore, the increase in milk production suggests an increase in the efficiency of conversion of feed to milk. These data indicate that a brief period of heat stress late in development reduces the physiological efficiency of the cow in a coordinated manner to result in a substantial decline in productivity. It is likely that this programming effect would be observed across genetic lines and result in poor sustainability of milk production. Milk will continue to be an important source of high-quality, human-edible food and technologies that improve the efficiency of production will be critical to enhance sustainability. These data provide compelling support for the concept that programming impacts on the dam and the developing fetus will play a role in optimizing the efficiency of production.