Abstract
Understanding the origins of variation in agricultural pathogens is of fundamental interest and practical importance, especially for diseases that threaten food security. Fusarium oxysporum is among the most important of soil-borne pathogens, with a global distribution and an extensive host range. The pathogen is considered to be asexual, with horizontal transfer of chromosomes providing an analog of assortment by meiotic recombination. Here, we challenge those assumptions based on the results of population genomic analyses, describing the pathogen's diversity and inferring its origins and functional consequences in the context of a single, long-standing agricultural system. We identify simultaneously low nucleotide distance among strains, and unexpectedly high levels of genetic and genomic variability. We determine that these features arise from a combination of genome-scale recombination, best explained by widespread sexual reproduction, and presence-absence variation consistent with chromosomal rearrangement. Pangenome analyses document an accessory genome more than twice the size of the core genome, with contrasting evolutionary dynamics. The core genome is stable, with low diversity and high genetic differentiation across geographic space, while the accessory genome is paradoxically more diverse and unstable but with lower genetic differentiation and hallmarks of contemporary gene flow at local scales. We suggest a model in which episodic sexual reproduction generates haplotypes that are selected and then maintained through clone-like dynamics, followed by contemporary genomic rearrangements that reassort the accessory genome among sympatric strains. Taken together, these processes contribute unique genome content, including reassortment of virulence determinants that may explain observed variation in pathogenic potential.