Abstract
Our understanding of the genetic architecture of phenotypic traits has experienced drastic growth over the last years. Nevertheless, the majority of studies associating genotypes and phenotypes have been conducted at the ontogenetic level. Thus, we still have an elusive knowledge of how these genetic-developmental architectures evolve themselves and how their evolution is mirrored in the phenotypic change across evolutionary time. We tackle this gap by reconstructing the evolution of male genital size, one of the most complex traits in insects, together with its underlying genetic architecture. Using the order Hemiptera as a model, spanning over 350 million years of evolution, we estimate the correlation between genitalia and three features: development rate, body size, and rates of DNA substitution in 68 genes associated with genital development. We demonstrate that genital size macro-evolution has been largely dependent on body size and weakly influenced by development rate and phylogenetic history. We further revealed significant correlations between mutation rates and genital size for 19 genes. Interestingly, these genes have diverse functions and participate in distinct signaling pathways, suggesting that genital size is a complex trait whose fast evolution has been enabled by molecular changes associated with diverse morphogenetic processes. Our data further demonstrate that the majority of DNA evolution correlated with the genitalia has been shaped by negative selection or neutral evolution. Thus, in terms of sequence evolution, changes in genital size are predominantly facilitated by relaxation of constraints rather than positive selection, possibly due to the high pleiotropic nature of the morphogenetic genes.