Abstract
To improve the vitrification efficiency of bovine germinal vesicle (GV) oocytes, the use of hydroxyapatite (HA) nanoparticles as a novel cryopreservation additive represents a promising approach. This study aimed to investigate the effects of HA nanoparticles and permeable cryoprotective agents (CPAs) on the ultrastructure, developmental competence, and gene expression of bovine GV oocytes following vitrification. Oocytes were vitrified in vitrification solutions containing HA nanoparticles of different sizes (20, 40, or 60 nm) and concentrations (0.01%, 0.05%, or 0.1%) to determine the optimal conditions based on survival rate, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) level, and developmental competence. Subsequently, the synergistic effects of HA nanoparticles and permeable CPAs (VS: 20% EG + 20% DMSO; VS1: 17.5% EG + 17.5% DMSO) were further evaluated. The optimal treatment (40 nm 0.05% HA nanoparticles) significantly increased MMP level, and improved developmental competence compared with the vitrified control group (p < 0.05). Among the vitrified groups, vitrified oocytes in the VS1-HA group (combining HA nanoparticles with reduced concentrations of permeable CPAs) exhibited the highest MMP level (1.89), maturation rate (50.39%), cleavage rate (27.07%), and blastocyst rate (10.53%) (p < 0.05). Ultrastructural analysis further revealed that the VS1-HA group maintained more intact zona pellucida structures and showed reduced mitochondrial swelling compared with the vitrified control group. Moreover, the expression levels of genes associated with zona pellucida formation (ZP3), mitochondrial fusion (MFN1), and chromatin remodeling (NPM2) were significantly upregulated in the VS1-HA group relative to the vitrified control group. Overall, these findings indicate that the combination of HA nanoparticles with lower concentrations of permeable CPAs enhances MMP level, alleviates vitrification-induced ultrastructural damage, and upregulates the expression of key developmental genes, thereby improving the developmental competence of vitrified bovine GV oocytes.