Abstract
Pinhole defects in thin films can significantly degrade their physical and chemical properties and act as sites for electrochemical corrosion. Therefore, the development of methods for the preparation of pinhole-free films is crucial. Electrodeposition, recognised for its efficiency and cost-effectiveness, shows great potential for applications in electrochemistry, biosensors, solar cells and electronic device fabrication. This review aims to elucidate the role of nucleation and growth models in understanding and optimising the electrodeposition process. Key parameters, such as crystal structure, orientation, surface morphology and defect control, are highlighted. In addition, the causes of pinhole defects, the effects of impurities and the potential and electrolyte composition on the deposited films are discussed. In particular, methods for minimising pinhole defects and two exemplary cases for a compact layer in relatively large-scale perovskite solar cells and nano-scale ultramicroelectrodes are discussed, exploring the influence of surface morphology, thickness and fabrication size under current common film preparation experiments. Finally, the critical aspects of controlled preparation, theoretical and technological advances, and the ongoing challenges in the field are provided.