Abstract
Environmental risk assessment of chemicals depends on the production of toxicity data for surrogate species of mammals, birds, and fish and on making comparisons between these and estimated or predicted environmental concentrations of the chemicals. This paper gives an overview of biomarker assays and strategies that might be used as alternatives, that is, to replace, reduce, or refine currently used ecotoxicity tests that cause suffering to vertebrates. In the present context a biomarker is a biologic response to an environmental chemical at the individual level or below which demonstrates a departure from normal status. Of immediate interest and relevance are nondestructive assays that provide a measure of toxic effect in vertebrate species and that can be used in both laboratory and parallel field studies. A major shortcoming of this approach is that such assays are currently only available for a limited number of chemicals, primarily when the mode of action is known. Nondestructive assays can be performed on blood, skin, excreta, and eggs of birds, fish, reptiles, and amphibians. An interesting recent development is the use of vertebrate cell cultures, including transgenic cell lines that have been developed specifically for toxicity testing. The ultimate concern in ecotoxicology is the effects of chemicals at the level of populations and above. Current risk assessment practices do not address this problem. The development of biomarker strategies could be part of a movement toward more ecologic end points in the safety evaluation of chemicals, which would effect a reduction in animal tests that cause suffering.