Abstract
Octopamine, the functional analog of noradrenaline, modulates many different behaviors and physiological processes in invertebrates. In the central nervous system, a few octopaminergic neurons project throughout the brain and innervate almost all neuropils. The center of memory formation in insects, the mushroom bodies, receive octopaminergic innervations in all insects investigated so far. Different octopamine receptors, either increasing or decreasing cAMP or calcium levels in the cell, are localized in Kenyon cells, further supporting the release of octopamine in the mushroom bodies. In addition, different mushroom body (MB) output neurons, projection neurons, and dopaminergic PAM cells are targets of octopaminergic neurons, enabling the modulation of learning circuits at different neural sites. For some years, the theory persisted that octopamine mediates rewarding stimuli, whereas dopamine (DA) represents aversive stimuli. This simple picture has been challenged by the finding that DA is required for both appetitive and aversive learning. Furthermore, octopamine is also involved in aversive learning and a rather complex interaction between these biogenic amines seems to modulate learning and memory. This review summarizes the role of octopamine in MB function, focusing on the anatomical principles and the role of the biogenic amine in learning and memory.