Abstract
Circulating levels of 3-carboxy-4-methyl-5-propyl-2-furanpropionic acid (CMPF), a metabolite derived from dietary furan fatty acids primarily found in marine food sources, have long been recognized as biomarkers for fish intake. However, elevated CMPF levels are also observed in patients with type 2 diabetes or chronic kidney disease and in healthy people, associated with a reduced infection risk, suggesting potential bioactive roles in metabolism and immune function. Yet, the possible causal mechanisms behind these associations are unknown. The aim of this scoping review, derived from human observations as well as in vivo and in vitro experimental studies, is to present the hypothesis that CMPF has immunometabolic properties by providing an overview of the determinants of circulating CMPF levels and presenting the studies suggesting its influence on cellular energy metabolism, particularly through enhancing lipid β-oxidation, potentially via activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs). CMPF notably affects hepatic metabolism by increasing mitochondrial fatty acid utilization and promoting the expression of hepatokines such as fibroblast growth factor 21, which may exert systemic metabolic and anti-inflammatory effects. Additionally, elevated CMPF levels have complex impacts on pancreatic function, potentially impairing insulin secretion and modifying glucose homeostasis. These metabolic alterations in the liver and pancreas can indirectly influence immune responses, shaping energy metabolism within immune cells and enhancing anti-inflammatory phenotypes. Moreover, CMPF may also directly influence immune cell metabolism and function through PPAR activation. Epidemiological evidence further supports that elevated CMPF levels are associated with reduced susceptibility to infections. Collectively, there is compelling evidence supporting the hypothesis that CMPF is a bioactive metabolite with systemic metabolic and immunomodulatory effects, warranting further in-depth investigation.