Abstract
Research on the adhesive locomotion of terrestrial gastropods is gaining renewed interest as it provides a source of guidance for the design of soft biomimetic robots that can perform functions currently not achievable by conventional rigid vehicles. The locomotion of terrestrial gastropods is driven by a train of periodic muscle contractions (pedal waves) and relaxations (interwaves) that propagate from their tails to their heads. These ventral waves interact with a thin layer of mucus secreted by the animal that transmits propulsive forces to the ground. The exact mechanism by which these propulsive forces are generated is still a matter of controversy. Specifically, the exact role played by the complex rheological and adhesive properties of the mucus is not clear. To provide quantitative data that could shed light on this question, we use a newly developed technique to measure, with high temporal and spatial resolution, the propulsive forces that terrestrial gastropods generate while crawling on smooth flat surfaces. The traction force measurements demonstrate the importance of the finite yield stress of the mucus in generating thrust and are consistent with the surface of the ventral foot being lifted with the passage of each pedal wave. We also show that a forward propulsive force is generated beneath each stationary interwave and that this net forward component is balanced by the resistance caused by the outer rim of the ventral foot, which slides at the speed of the center of mass of the animal. Simultaneously, the animal pulls the rim laterally inward. Analysis of the traction forces reveals that the kinematics of the pedal waves is far more complex than previously thought, showing significant spatial variation (acceleration/deceleration) as the waves move from the tail to the head of the animal.