Abstract
In 2018, seven million people died prematurely due to exposure to pollution. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a significant source of secondary organic aerosol (SOA) in urban areas. We investigated the toxic effects of by-products of naphthalene SOA on lung cells. These by-products were 1,4-naphthoquinone (1,4-NQ), 2-hydroxy-1,4-naphthoquinone (2-OH-NQ), phthalic acid (PA) and phthaldialdehyde (OPA). Two different assessment methodologies were used to monitor the toxic effects: real-time cell analysis (RTCA) and the Holomonitor, a quantitative phase contrast microscope. The chemicals were tested in concentrations of 12.5 to 100 µM for 1,4-NQ and 1 to 10 mM for 2-OH-NQ, PA and OPA. We found that 1,4-NQ is toxic to cells from 25 to 100 µM (EC50: 38.7 µM ± 5.2); 2-OH-NQ is toxic from 1 to 10mM (EC50: 5.3 mM ± 0.6); PA is toxic from 5 to 10 mM (EC50: 5.2 mM ± 0.3) and OPA is toxic from 2.5 to 10 mM (EC50: 4.2 mM ± 0.5). Only 1,4-NQ and OPA affected cell parameters (migration, motility, motility speed and optical volume). Furthermore, 1,4-NQ is the most toxic by-product of naphthalene, with an EC50 value that was one hundred times higher than those of the other compounds. RTCA and Holomonitor analysis showed a complementarity when studying the toxicity induced by chemicals.