Abstract
Rationale: Patients suffering from coronary artery disease (CAD) complicated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) present worse cardiovascular outcomes than CAD patients without NAFLD. The progression of CAD is recently reported to be associated with gut microbiota and microbe-derived metabolites. However, it remains unclear how the complication of NAFLD will affect gut microbiota and microbe-derived metabolites in CAD patients, and whether or not this interplay is related to the worse cardiovascular outcomes in CAD-NAFLD patients. Methods: We performed 16S rRNA sequencing and serum metabolomic analysis in 27 CAD patients with NAFLD, 81 CAD patients without NAFLD, and 24 matched healthy volunteers. Predicted functional profiling was achieved using PICRUSt2. The occurrence of cardiovascular events was assessed by a follow-up study. The association of alterations in the gut microbiome and metabolome with adverse cardiovascular events and clinical indicators was revealed by Spearman correlation analysis. Results: We discovered that the complication of NAFLD was associated with worse clinical outcomes in CAD patients and critical serum metabolome shifts. We identified 25 metabolite modules that were correlated with poor clinical outcome in CAD-NAFLD patients compared with non-NAFLD patients, represented by increased cardiac-toxic metabolites including prochloraz, brofaromine, aristolochic acid, triethanolamine, and reduced potentially beneficial metabolites including estradiol, chitotriose, palmitelaidic acid, and moxisylyte. In addition, the gut microbiome of individuals with CAD-NAFLD was changed and characterized by increased abundances of Oscillibacter ruminantium and Dialister invisus, and decreased abundances of Fusicatenibacter saccharivorans, Bacteroides ovatus and Prevotella copri. PICRUSt2 further confirmed an increase of potential pathogenic bacteria in CAD-NAFLD. Moreover, we found that variations of gut microbiota were critically correlated with changed circulating metabolites and clinical outcomes, which revealed that aberrant gut microbiota in CAD-NAFLD patients may sculpt a detrimental metabolome which results in adverse cardiovascular outcomes. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that CAD patients complicated with NAFLD result in worse clinical outcomes possibly by modulating the features of the gut microbiota and circulating metabolites. We introduce "liver-gut microbiota-heart axis" as a possible mechanism underlying this interrelationship. Our study provides new insights on the contribution of gut microbiota heterogeneity to CAD-NAFLD progression and suggests novel strategies for disease therapy.