Abstract
Fungi are increasingly recognized to play diverse roles within honey bee hives, acting as pathogens, mutualists, and commensals. Pollen products, essential for hive nutrition, host significant fungal communities with potential protective and nutritional benefits. In this study, we profile the fungal communities and antifungal properties of three pollen products from healthy and stressed hives: fresh pollen collected by forager bees from local plants; stored pollen packed into the comb inside the hive; and bee bread, which is stored pollen following anaerobic fermentation used for bee and larval nutrition. Using amplicon sequencing, we found significant differences in fungal community composition, with hive health and sample type accounting for 8.8% and 19.3% of variation in beta diversity, respectively. Pollen and bee bread extracts had species-specific antimicrobial activity and inhibited the fungal hive pathogens Ascosphaera apis, Aspergillus flavus, and Aspergillus fumigatus, and the bacterial hive pathogen Paenibacillus larvae. Activity was positively correlated with phenolic and antioxidant content and was diminished in stressed hives. The plant source of pollen determined by amplicon sequencing differed in stressed hives, suggesting altered foraging behaviour. These findings illustrate the complex interplay between honey bees, fungal communities, and hive products, which should be considered in hive management and conservation.