Abstract
Damage from ice and potential toxicity of ice-inhibiting cryoprotective agents (CPAs) are key issues in assisted reproduction using cryopreserved oocytes and embryos. We use synchrotron-based time-resolved x-ray diffraction and tools from protein cryocrystallography to characterize ice formation within bovine oocytes after cooling at rates between ∼1000 °C/min and ∼600,000°C /min and during warming at rates between 20,000 and 150,000 °C /min. Maximum crystalline ice diffraction intensity, maximum ice volume, and maximum ice grain size are always observed during warming. All decrease with increasing CPA concentration, consistent with the decreasing free water fraction. With the cooling rates, warming rates and CPA concentrations of current practice, oocytes may show no ice after cooling but always develop substantial ice fractions on warming, and modestly reducing CPA concentrations causes substantial ice to form during cooling. With much larger cooling and warming rates achieved using cryocrystallography tools, oocytes soaked as in current practice remain essentially ice free during both cooling and warming, and when soaked in half-strength CPA solution oocytes remain ice free after cooling and develop small grain ice during warming. These results clarify the roles of cooling, warming, and CPA concentration in generating ice in oocytes, establish the character of ice formed, and suggest that substantial further improvements in warming rates are feasible. Ice formation can be eliminated as a factor affecting post-thaw oocyte viability and development, allowing other deleterious effects of the cryopreservation cycle to be studied, and osmotic stress and CPA toxicity reduced. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Cryopreservation of oocytes and embryos is critical in assisted reproduction of humans and domestic animals and in preservation of endangered species. Success rates are limited by damage from crystalline ice, toxicity of cryoprotective agents (CPAs), and damage from osmotic stress. Time-resolved x-ray diffraction of bovine oocytes shows that ice forms much more readily during warming than during cooling, that maximum ice fractions always occur during warming, and that the tools and large CPA concentrations of current protocols can at best only prevent ice formation during cooling. Using tools from cryocrystallography that give dramatically larger cooling and warming rates, ice formation can be completely eliminated and required CPA concentrations substantially reduced, expanding the scope for species-specific optimization of post-thaw reproductive outcomes.