Abstract
OBJECTIVE: We previously demonstrated that diabetes exacerbates stroke-induced brain injury, and that this correlates with brain methylglyoxal (MG)-to-glutathione (GSH) status. Cerebral injury was reversed by N-acetylcysteine (NAC). Here we tested if the pro-thrombotic phenotype seen in the systemic circulation and brain during diabetes was associated with increased MG-glycation of proteins, and if NAC could reverse this. METHODS: The streptozotocin (STZ)-induced mouse model of type 1 diabetes was used. Thrombus formation in venules and arterioles (pial circulation) was determined by intravital videomicroscopy using the light-dye method. Circulating blood platelet-leukocyte aggregates (PLAs) were analyzed by flow cytometry 1 wk before other measurements. GSH and MG levels in platelets were measured by HPLC. MG-modified proteins, glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPx-1), and superoxide dismutase-1 (SOD1) levels were detected in platelets by western blot at 20 weeks. Proteins involved in coagulation were quantified by ELISA. NAC (2mM) was given in drinking water for 3 weeks before the terminal experiment. RESULTS: Thrombus development was accelerated by diabetes in a time-dependent manner. % PLAs were significantly elevated by diabetes. Plasma activated plasminogen activator inhibitor type 1 levels were progressively increased with diabetes duration, with tail bleeding time reduced by 20 wks diabetes. Diabetes lowered platelet GSH levels, GPx-1 and SOD-1 expression. This was associated with higher MG levels, and increased MG-adduct formation in platelets. NAC treatment partly or completely reversed the effects of diabetes. CONCLUSION: Collectively, these results show that the diabetic blood and brain become progressively more susceptible to platelet activation and thrombosis. NAC, given after the establishment of diabetes, may offer protection against the risk for stroke by altering both systemic and vascular prothrombotic responses via enhancing platelet GSH, and GSH-dependent MG elimination, as well as correcting levels of antioxidants such as SOD1 and GPx-1.