Abstract
In this review, we speculate about future therapeutic approaches for inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), focusing on the need for better preclinical and clinical models and approaches beyond small molecules and systemically administered biologics. We offer ideas to change clinical trial programs and to use immunologic and genetic biomarkers to personalize medicine. We attempt to reconcile past therapeutic successes and failures to improve future approaches. Some of our ideas might be provocative, but we hope that the examples we provide will stimulate discussion about what will advance the field of IBD therapy.