Abstract
INTRODUCTION: Wrist-worn accelerometers can capture stepping behavior passively, continuously, and remotely. Methods utilizing peak detection, threshold crossing, and frequency analysis have been used to detect steps from wrist-worn accelerometer data, but it remains unclear how different approaches perform across a range of walking speeds and free-living activities. In this study, we evaluated the performance of four open-source methods for deriving step counts from wrist-worn accelerometry data, when applied to data from a range of structured locomotion and free-living activities. In addition, we assessed how modifying the parameters of these methods would affect their performance. METHODS: Twenty-one participants (ages 20-33) wore an ActiGraph CentrePoint Insight Watch (Actigraph, LLC) on their non-dominant wrist while completing structured locomotion activities in a motion capture laboratory and during a free-living period in a mock apartment. Criterion step counts were determined from motion capture heel-strike events and from StepWatch 3 (Modus Health, LLC) during the free-living period. Four open-source methods implementing different algorithmic approaches were applied to CPIW data to derive step counts. The quantity and timing of method-derived and criterion steps during each type of activity were then compared. RESULTS: In terms of performance during structured locomotion, methods that relied on a single parameter, such as peak detection or threshold crossing, demonstrated the lowest bias among those investigated. Furthermore, three of the four investigated methods overestimated step counts during slow walking and underestimated step counts during fast walking, while the last method consistently underestimated at least half of the recorded steps across all speeds. During free-living activities, the method relying on frequency analysis exhibited the lowest percent error of all methods. Finally, we found that the incorporation of a locomotion classifier, wherein steps were only estimated during identified locomotion periods, reduced error for two methods when applied to data across structured and free-living settings. CONCLUSION: In studying the performance of different step-counting approaches across different settings, we found a tradeoff between performance during structured walking and that during free-living activities. These findings highlight the opportunity for novel, context-aware methods for accurate step counting across real-world settings.