Abstract
Anemia can be related to decreased production or increased loss of erythrocytes, or both, leading to many underlying and often overlapping causes. A largely cereal-based diet with plenty of phytates, polyphenols, and other ligands that inhibit intestinal iron absorption predominated in preindustrial Europe and predominates in present-day developing countries alike. In both situations, we find poor hygienic conditions, which frequently lead to anemia of inflammation. The large number of possible causes and their interaction shows why it is so difficult to mitigate anemia prevalence. Diagnostic biomarkers are required to differentiate the different types of anemia and to treat them appropriately. Some of them are well established in adults [e.g., concentrations of serum ferritin, soluble transferrin receptor (sTfR), and serum iron or the ratio of sTfR to log ferritin]. Others, such as serum hepcidin, hold considerable promise, although they are not yet widely used. A particular issue is to establish reference values for biomarkers in infants and children at different ages. The fact that resource-rich postindustrial societies have a very low prevalence of iron-deficiency anemia offers hope that common types of anemia can be eliminated. In contrast, inborn forms of anemia, such as thalassemia, and anemias related to underlying diseases (e.g., bleeding tumors or peptic ulcers, gynecologic blood losses, or renal diseases) require an operational health system to be addressed appropriately.