Abstract
BACKGROUND: Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is associated with increased mortality independent of BMI, resulting in discordant metabolic phenotypes, such as metabolically healthy obese and metabolically unhealthy normal-weight individuals. Studies investigating dietary intake in MetS have reported mixed results, due in part to the limitations of self-reported measures. OBJECTIVES: To investigate the role of biomarker-calibrated estimates of energy and protein in MetS and metabolic phenotypes. METHODS: Postmenopausal participants from the Women's Health Initiative (WHI) study who were free of MetS at baseline, had available data from FFQs at baseline, and had components of MetS at Year 3 (n = 3963) were included. Dietary energy and protein intakes were estimated using biomarker calibration methods. MetS was defined as 3 or more of the following: elevated serum triglycerides (≥150 mg/dL), low HDL cholesterol (<50 mg/dL), hypertension [systolic blood pressure (BP) ≥130 or diastolic BP ≥85 mmHg], elevated serum glucose (>100 mg/dL), and abdominal adiposity (waist circumference > 89 cm). Models were adjusted for age, WHI study component, race/ethnicity, education, income, smoking, recreational physical activity, disease history, and parity. RESULTS: For every 10% increment in total calibrated energy intake, women were at a 1.37-fold elevated risk of MetS (95% CI, 1.15-1.63); a 10% increment in calibrated total protein intake was associated with a 1.21-fold elevated risk of MetS (95% CI, 1.00-1.47). Specifically, animal protein intake was associated with MetS (OR, 1.08; 95% CI, 1.02-1.14), whereas vegetable protein intake was not (OR, 0.99; 95% CI, 0.95-1.03). No differences were seen when examining metabolic phenotypes. CONCLUSIONS: We found that higher calibrated total energy, total protein, and total animal protein intakes were strongly associated with MetS. If replicated in clinical trials, these results will have implications for the promotion of energy and animal protein restrictions for the reduction of MetS risks.