Abstract
Fluorescent nanoparticles known as quantum dots (QDs) have unique properties that make them useful in biomedicine. Specifically, CdSe/ZnS QDs, while good at fluorescing, show toxicity. Due to this, safer alternatives have been developed. This study uses a tetrazolium dye (XTT) viability assay, reactive oxygen species (ROS) fluorescent imaging, and apoptosis to investigate the effect of QD alternatives InP/ZnS, CuInS2/ZnS, and nitrogen-doped carbon dots (NCDs) in liver cells. The liver is a possible destination for the accumulation of QDs, making it an appropriate model for testing. A cancerous liver cell line known as HepG2 and an immortalized liver cell line known as THLE-2 were used. At a nanomolar range of 10-150, HepG2 cells demonstrated no reduced cell viability after 24 h. The XTT viability assay demonstrated that CdSe/ZnS and CuInS2/ZnS show reduced cell viability in THLE-2 cells with concentrations between 50 and 150 nM. Furthermore, CdSe/ZnS- and CuInS2/ZnS-treated THLE-2 cells generated ROS as early as 6 h after treatment and elevated apoptosis after 24 h. To further corroborate our results, apoptosis assays revealed an increased percentage of cells in the early stages of apoptosis for CdSe/ZnS-treated (52%) and CuInS2/ZnS-treated (38%) THLE-2. RNA transcriptomics revealed heavy downregulation of cell adhesion pathways such as wnt, cadherin, and integrin in all QDs except NCDs. In conclusion, NCDs show the least toxicity toward these two liver cell lines. While demonstrating less toxicity than CdSe/ZnS, the metallic QDs (InP/ZnS and CuInS2/ZnS) still demonstrate potential concerns in liver cells. This study serves to explore the toxicity of QD alternatives and better understand their cellular interactions.