Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Recent studies have documented numerous morphoanatomical variations for the seed coat in Bromeliaceae. However, the structural diversity and character evolution of the embryo within this family remain largely unexplored. Given the significance of the embryo in plant diversification, this research aims to investigate the morphology and key anatomical features of Bromeliaceae embryos, providing insights into character evolution, taxonomic applications and reproductive biology. METHODS: We analysed samples of 88 species from 50 genera representing the major lineages of Bromeliaceae, using standard plant microtechniques adapted for seeds. To determine ancestral traits, parsimony and maximum likelihood analyses were performed in a consensus supertree combining previous phylogenies. KEY RESULTS: We identified 14 informative characters, highlighting significant differences among groups, particularly in embryo morphology, differentiation and anatomical traits. Our analysis revealed that undifferentiated embryos with a vestigial cotyledonary hyperphyll are plesiomorphic in Bromeliaceae. They have evolved multiple times into rudimentary or well-differentiated embryos, the latter exhibiting intermediate or large sizes and diverse cotyledonary hyperphyll morphologies. The cotyledonary hypophyll varies in sheath lobes and slit morphologies and is curved or expanded exclusively in representatives of Bromelioideae. Likewise, several patterns of hypocotyl/radicle constriction are unique to Tillandsioideae and plesiomorphic for this clade. Although rudimentary embryos exhibit simpler and more uniform anatomy, they are distinct from undifferentiated embryos, which lack defined organs and internal tissues. In contrast, well-differentiated embryos possess more complex anatomical structures, including a multi-layered shoot apical meristem and root cap, a broad cotyledonary sheath and often leaf primordia, the last of which have evolved independently several times only in large embryos. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings reveal a previously unknown morphological diversity for embryos in Bromeliaceae, enhancing our understanding of the morphological evolution of their major lineages. In addition, our findings introduce new informative characters for the systematics of the family and broaden our understanding of the reproductive biology of Bromeliaceae.