Abstract
Glycogen is a highly branched biomacromolecule that functions as a glucose buffer. It is involved in multiple diseases such as glycogen storage disorders, diabetes, and even liver cancer, where the imbalance between biosynthetic and catabolic enzymes results in structural alterations and abnormal accumulation of glycogen that can be toxic to cells. Accurate and sensitive glycogen quantification and structural determination are prerequisites for understanding the phenotypes and biological functions of glycogen under these conditions. In this research, we furthered cell glycogen characterization by presenting a highly sensitive method to measure the glycogen content and degree of branching. The method employed a novel fructose density gradient as an alternative to the traditional sucrose gradient to fractionate glycogen from cell mixtures using ultracentrifugation. Fructose was used to avoid the large glucose background, allowing the method to be highly quantitative. The glycogen content was determined by quantifying 1-phenyl-3-methyl-5-pyrazolone (PMP)-derivatized glucose residues obtained from acid-hydrolyzed glycogen using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography/triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UHPLC/QqQ-MS). The degree of branching was determined through linkage analysis where the glycogen underwent permethylation, hydrolysis, PMP derivatization, and UHPLC/QqQ-MS analysis. The new approach was used to study the effect of insulin on the glycogen phenotypes of human hepatocellular carcinoma (Hep G2) cells. We observed that cells produced greater amounts of glycogen with less branching under increasing insulin levels before reaching the cell's insulin-resistant state, where the trend reversed and the cells produced less but higher-branched glycogen. The advantage of this method lies in its high sensitivity in characterizing both the glycogen level and the structure of biological samples.