Abstract
PURPOSE: Evaluation of artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms for prostate segmentation is challenging because ground truth is lacking. We aimed to: (1) create a reference standard data set with precise prostate contours by expert consensus, and (2) evaluate various AI tools against this standard. METHODS AND MATERIALS: We obtained prostate magnetic resonance imaging cases from six institutions from the Qualitative Prostate Imaging Consortium. A panel of 4 experts (2 genitourinary radiologists and 2 prostate radiation oncologists) meticulously developed consensus prostate segmentations on axial T(2)-weighted series. We evaluated the performance of 6 AI tools (3 commercially available and 3 academic) using Dice scores, distance from reference contour, and volume error. RESULTS: The panel achieved consensus prostate segmentation on each slice of all 68 patient cases included in the reference data set. We present 2 patient examples to serve as contouring guides. Depending on the AI tool, median Dice scores (across patients) ranged from 0.80 to 0.94 for whole prostate segmentation. For a typical (median) patient, AI tools had a mean error over the prostate surface ranging from 1.3 to 2.4 mm. They maximally deviated 3.0 to 9.4 mm outside the prostate and 3.0 to 8.5 mm inside the prostate for a typical patient. Error in prostate volume measurement for a typical patient ranged from 4.3% to 31.4%. CONCLUSIONS: We established an expert consensus benchmark for prostate segmentation. The best-performing AI tools have typical accuracy greater than that reported for radiation oncologists using computed tomography scans (the most common clinical approach for radiation therapy planning). Physician review remains essential to detect occasional major errors.