Abstract
Diet is of major importance in modulating intestinal inflammation, as the gastrointestinal tract is directly exposed to high concentrations of dietary components. Procyanidins are flavan-3-ol oligomers abundant in fruits and vegetables. Although with limited or no intestinal absorption, they can have GI health benefits which can promote overall health. We previously observed that epicatechin gallate (ECG) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) dimers inhibit in vitro colorectal cancer cell proliferation and invasiveness. Inflammation-mediated intestinal barrier permeabilization can result in a chronic inflammatory condition and promote colorectal cancer onset/progression. Thus, this study investigated the structure-dependent capacity of ECG, EGCG and (-)-epicatechin (EC) dimers to inhibit tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα)-induced inflammation, oxidative stress, and loss of barrier integrity in Caco-2 cells differentiated into an intestinal epithelial cell monolayer. Cells were incubated with TNFα (10 ng/ml), in the absence/presence of ECG, EGCG and EC dimers. The three dimers inhibited TNFα-mediated Caco-2 cell monolayer permeabilization, modulating events involved in the loss of barrier function and inflammation, i.e. decreased tight junction protein levels; increased matrix metalloproteinases expression and activity; increased NADPH oxidase expression and oxidant production; activation of the NF-κB and ERK1/2 pathways and downstream events leading to tight junction opening. For some of these mechanisms, the galloylated ECG and EGCG dimers had stronger protective potency than the non-galloylated EC dimer. These differences could be due to differential membrane interactions as pointed out by molecular dynamics simulation of procyanidin dimers-cell membrane interactions and/or by differential interactions with NOX1. Results show that dimeric procyanidins, although poorly absorbed, can promote health by alleviating intestinal inflammation, oxidative stress and barrier permeabilization.