Abstract
Tigers (Panthera tigris) are apex predators and vital indicators of a healthy terrestrial ecosystem. Their effective conservation demands long-term data on their populations, prey abundance, and anthropogenic disturbances from humans and domestic animals across different forest management regimes. In this study, we analyzed camera trap datasets (2009, 2013, 2018, and 2022) from Parsa National Park, its buffer zone, and adjoining national forests. Using the Relative Abundance Index (RAI), we quantified the abundance of tigers, prey, humans, and domestic animals. Our findings revealed a significant increase (χ(2) = 9.6; df = 3; p < 0.05) in the RAI of tigers (from 2.65 in 2009 to 7.11 in 2022) and their prey, coupled with a decrease in anthropogenic disturbances in the national park. Meanwhile, no significant differences in the RAI of tigers and their prey were observed in the buffer zone and national forests. We also found an increasing trend of human disturbances (RAI from 351.44 in 2009 to 389.7 in 2022) in the national forests. However, the abundance of domestic animals showed a decreasing trend across all three forest management regimes. Our results suggest that a reduction in anthropogenic disturbances has a more notable positive impact on tigers' abundance than on their prey. This study emphasizes the need for directed conservation policies to reduce anthropogenic disturbances in buffer zones and national forests, while also addressing local needs and securing their goodwill for sustainable tiger conservation.