Abstract
BACKGROUND: Executive functions (EF) are cognitive processes that support goal-directed behaviors that are essential for children's academic success, predicting school performance more strongly than IQ. However, intervention studies report mixed findings regarding the causal far-transfer effects to academic skills, such as literacy and mathematics. Age and intervention modality may moderate these effects: younger children may experience greater EF gains due to heightened neuroplasticity, and the format of delivery (digital, traditional, or mixed) could influence engagement and outcomes. This study aims to examine the effectiveness of EF interventions delivered across three modalities and two developmental stages to identify the most effective approach for enhancing both EF and academic performance. METHODS: A cluster-randomized controlled trial will be conducted in four municipal schools in Chile. Using a 4 × 2 factorial design, schools will be randomly assigned to one of four conditions: digital, traditional, mixed-modality, or control. Two age groups will be included (5-6 and 9-10 years). Participants (N = 240) will complete 24 intervention sessions over 12 weeks. The intervention is adapted from a previously validated digital platform targeting executive and social-emotional skills. For this study, the activities focus on stimulating working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. Sessions are gamified and delivered via tablets, physical materials, or a combination of both, depending on condition. Primary outcomes include the three core EF domains, assessed pre- and post-intervention. Secondary outcomes include literacy and mathematical skills. Data will be analyzed using Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA) and Linear Mixed Models (LMM) to examine main effects, interactions, and moderating roles of age and modality. DISCUSSION: This study will provide key insights into how age and the intervention modality influence EF training outcomes with regard to EF and possibly academic domains. By comparing digital, traditional, and mixed delivery, we aim to identify the most effective and engaging intervention format across developmental stages. Findings may inform scalable, evidence-based educational programs, particularly for vulnerable populations, and serve as a foundation for future large-scale trials to guide best practices in EF intervention research. TRIAL REGISTRATION: NCT06935656, April 20, 2025 [https//clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06935656] https//osf.io/9mp83, March 11, 2025.