Abstract
Objective.The goal of this work is to identify the spatio-temporal facets of state-of-the-art electroencephalography (EEG)-based continuous neurorobotics that need to be addressed, prior to deployment in practical applications at home and in the clinic.Approach.Nine healthy human subjects participated in five sessions of one-dimensional (1D) horizontal (LR), 1D vertical (UD) and two-dimensional (2D) neural tracking from EEG. Users controlled a robotic arm and virtual cursor to continuously track a Gaussian random motion target using EEG sensorimotor rhythm modulation via motor imagery (MI) commands. Continuous control quality was analyzed in the temporal and spatial domains separately.Main results.Axis-specific errors during 2D tasks were significantly larger than during 1D counterparts. Fatigue rates were larger for control tasks with higher cognitive demand (LR, left- and right-hand MI) compared to those with lower cognitive demand (UD, both hands MI and rest). Additionally robotic arm and virtual cursor control exhibited equal tracking error during all tasks. However, further spatial error analysis of 2D control revealed a significant reduction in tracking quality that was dependent on the visual interference of the physical device. In fact, robotic arm performance was significantly greater than that of virtual cursor control when the users' sightlines were not obstructed.Significance.This work emphasizes the need for practical interfaces to be designed around real-world tasks of increased complexity. Here, the dependence of control quality on cognitive task demand emphasizes the need for decoders that facilitate the translation of 1D task mastery to 2D control. When device footprint was accounted for, the introduction of a physical robotic arm improved control quality, likely due to increased user engagement. In general, this work demonstrates the need to consider both the physical footprint of devices, the complexity of training tasks, and the synergy of control strategies during the development of neurorobotic control.