Abstract
Growth Differentiation Factor 15 (GDF15), also known as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug-activated gene-1 (NAG-1) or macrophage inhibitory cytokine 1 (MIC-1), is a stress- and inflammation-induced cytokine distantly related to the TGF-β superfamily. Its highly elevated levels showed close association with various pathological conditions, making it an emerging biomarker of disease prognosis. However, most GDF15-mediated effects under normal physiology and various pathological conditions are poorly understood. This is partly because the only known GDF15 receptor is exclusively localized in the brain, and how GDF15 functions peripherally is currently unknown. Mounting recent evidence has shown GDF15's critical role in fibrosis in multiple organs, such as the liver, lung, and kidney. Evidence further suggests that it can either contribute to fibrosis by promoting inflammation and fibroblast activation or confer protective effects by modulating the immune response and mitigating fibrosis severity. Thus, the exact role of GDF15 in fibrosis can vary depending on the organ involved and the specific disease context. For example, increased GDF15 in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) promotes fibrosis via fibroblast activation and collagen deposition. Conversely, GDF15 might have a protective role in liver fibrosis, with decreased GDF15 levels causing increased fibrosis severity, while GDF15 treatment ameliorates fibrosis. Due to its close association with fibrosis, GDF15 is being investigated as a potential biomarker for disease severity and monitoring treatment response. However, further research unraveling its mechanisms of action is needed to explore the potential of GDF15 as a therapeutic target for treating fibrosis, either by modulating its expression or utilizing its immunomodulatory properties. This review marshals the limited studies addressing the recently appreciated differential role of GDF15 in regulating the fibrotic process in different organs. The review also discusses the aspects of further research needed to highlight GDF 15 as a novel predictor and therapeutic target for fibrosis in different organs.