Abstract
Hexabromocyclododecane (HBCD) is an environmental contaminant due to its use as a flame retardant in a variety of applications ranging from building insulation, furniture upholstery, and housing for appliances and electronics. HBCD is found in wildlife, human breastmilk, and serum. Interleukin 1-beta (IL-1β) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) are pro-inflammatory cytokines, whose dysregulation is associated with chronic inflammation and the pathologies that result, such as tumor growth, rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease, and multiple sclerosis. HBCD has been shown to increase the secretion of both IL-1β and IL-6 from human immune cells. However, it is not clear if these increases are due solely to HBCD effects on the secretory process or whether it is stimulating cellular production of IL-1β and IL-6. This study examines if HBCD can increase the production of IL-1β and IL-6 by immune cells by simultaneously assessing secreted levels and cellular levels of these cytokines. Additionally, the mechanisms for any observed changes in production are investigated. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were exposed to HBCD over a range of concentrations and lengths of exposure. HBCD was found to stimulate IL-1β and IL-6 production after 6 hrs. of exposure and production was sustained and intensified at 24 hrs. This increase in IL-1β and IL-6 production appears to, in part, be a result of increased mRNA expression. Additionally, the MAPK pathways, specifically the p38 and p44/42 pathways, appear to be required for HBCD-induced increases in IL-1β and IL-6 production.