Abstract
INTRODUCTION: Tris (chloropropyl) phosphate (TCPP) is an organophosphate flame retardant (PFR) added to flexible polyurethane foam to adhere to national or sectorial flammability requirements. During the manufacturing of flexible polyurethane foam, workers can be potentially exposed to TCPP dermally or through inhalation. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to determine the exposure to TCPP in European polyurethane foam workers and perform a risk assessment based on a newly determined derived no effect level (DNEL). METHODS: In this study, 28 workers from 5 European flexible polyurethane foam production factories participated. Levels of the urinary metabolites of TCPP: bis(1-chloro-isopropyl) hydroxy-isopropyl phosphate (BCIPHIPP) and bis(1-chloro-isopropyl) phosphate (BCIPP) were measured using LC-MS/MS and risk assessment was performed by calculating estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of TCPP and comparing these with the DNEL. RESULTS: BCIPHIPP was detected in 100% of samples, with a median of 5.56 ng/mL (maximum 420 ng/mL). BCIPP had an overall detection frequency of 31%, but in workers from one individual factory it was detected in 93% (n = 13) of samples, with a median of 9.41 ng/mL (maximum 58.6 ng/mL). A DNEL of 3.0 mg/kg bw/day for TCPP was determined for an occupationally exposed population by evaluating a recently published chronic in vivo study on TCPP carcinogenicity. EDIs were all more than 2 orders of magnitude below the DNEL. CONCLUSIONS: Although BCIPHIPP levels detected in this study were higher than in the general population, the performed risk assessment indicated that the included workers are not expected to be at risk for carcinogenic effects following TCPP exposure at the measured levels and that the applied safety measures are sufficiently protecting the workers under these conditions.