Abstract
During recent decades a myriad of approaches have emerged for generating surrogate gametes or achieving in vitro gametogenesis (IVG). The most recent approaches to IVG include the development of increasingly complex culture systems, use of companion cells combined with germ line cells in two- or three-dimensional configurations, derivation of germ line-like cells from pluripotent stem cells, and genetic and chromosomal manipulations of pluripotent stem cells to enable the production of bi-maternal and bi-paternal offspring. This review summarizes the major approaches in IVG, the challenges remaining, and considers the significance of these technologies within the context of departure from exclusively dioecious sexual reproduction for the human species.