Abstract
Cancer poses a global challenge, affecting millions of people and placing a significant burden on families and healthcare systems. Chemotherapy, radiotherapy, hormone therapy, and immunotherapy are commonly used for cancer treatment; their side effects can be severe. Photothermal therapy (PTT) has emerged as a promising alternative due to its minimal invasiveness and high efficiency. In this study, graphene oxide (GO) was synthesized and functionalized to obtain nitrogen-doped graphene oxide (NGO) and boron-doped graphene oxide (BGO) via a hydrothermal process, aiming to use them as photoactive agents (PAs) in PTT. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) analysis revealed that GO, BGO, and NGO exhibit monolayer atomic structures. Spectroscopic analyses confirmed the presence of oxygen and carbon in all samples, along with successful boron and nitrogen doping in BGO and NGO, respectively. Cytotoxicity assays yielded half-maximal inhibitory concentrations (IC(50)) of 1025.26 μg/mL for GO, 2695.03 μg/mL for BGO, and 1319.81 μg/mL for NGO. Photothermal experiments were conducted using a 635 nm light source with an intensity of 65.5 mW/cm(2), resulting in temperature thresholds of 44.87 °C for GO, 48.36 °C for NGO, and 55.91 °C for BGO. Anticancer assays were performed using the T-47D breast cancer cell line, demonstrating tumor cell elimination rates of 97.93% for GO, 98.54% for BGO, and 97.98% for NGO, underscoring their efficacy as PAs. Density functional theory (DFT) simulations were carried out to determine the absorbance coefficient as a function of doping percentage. The results revealed that increased doping enhances light absorbance and, consequently, the photothermal response, as higher absorbance at the irradiation wavelength leads to greater energy absorption and temperature elevation.