Abstract
Molecular chaperones are crucial for maintaining protein homeostasis by assisting in the proper folding, stabilization, and function of proteins. Among them, Heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90), represents a highly conserved protein family of molecular chaperones that plays an essential role in diverse biological processes and is fundamental to cellular health and survival. As a highly abundant molecular chaperone, Hsp90 comprises 1-2% of cellular proteins, increasing to 4-6% under stress conditions. It interacts with client proteins, assisting them in proper folding and stability. Unlike classical chaperonins, Hsp90 operates through a highly regulated, ATP-dependent cycle that involves multiple co-chaperones. This process allows Hsp90 to selectively engage with numerous client proteins, including signaling proteins, kinases, hormone receptors, and transcription factors. Recent discoveries have revealed its involvement in processes beyond protein folding, demonstrating its role in diverse cellular functions such as epigenetic regulation, immune signaling, and oncogenic transformation. This current review highlighted the specific characteristics of cytoplasmic and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) as well as mitochondrial paralogs and functions, focusing on its contribution to buffering genetic variation, facilitating oncogene addiction, and modulating disease phenotypes in conditions such as cancer, neurodegeneration, cardiovascular diseases (CVD), and diabetes. We also discuss the therapeutic potential of targeting Hsp90 and its co-chaperones, outlining the challenges and prospects in drug development. These insights not only reshape our understanding of chaperone biology but also present opportunities for precision medicine in various human diseases.