Abstract
Free-ranging dogs (FRDs) constitute approximately 80% of the global dog population. They are freely breeding and live without direct human supervision, making them ideal for studying how factors such as the lack of supervision, unmanaged breeding, and variable human contact shape dog-human relationships. Living in proximity to humans, FRDs in India frequently interact with people, and previous studies suggest humans to be a crucial part of their social environment. Positive reinforcement in the form of food and petting is commonly received from humans. In this study, we investigated which reward, food or petting, is preferred more during short-term and repeated interactions. Field trials were conducted on 61 adult FRDs. During the familiarization phase (Days 1 to 5), two unfamiliar individuals each provided either food or petting to the dogs. This was followed by a series of choice tests (Days 1 to 10), in which dogs could choose between the two individuals. On the first day, dogs significantly preferred the food provider. However, from the second day onward, preference was no different from chance, suggesting that the strength of food as a reward was reduced. These findings suggest that while food is a stronger short-term motivator, repeated interactions involving either food or petting contribute equally to the formation of positive social associations over time. This study sheds light on the development of the dog-human relationship in Indian FRD populations and highlights the nuanced role of different rewards in fostering affiliative associations. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10071-026-02046-4.