Abstract
BACKGROUND: The prevalence of smoking and diabetes is increasing in many developing countries. The aim of this study was to investigate the association of smoking with inadequate glycemic control and glycemic variability with continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) data in people with type 1 diabetes. METHODS: Forty-nine smokers and 320 nonsmokers were obtained from the Novo Nordisk Onset 5 trial. After 16 weeks of treatment with continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion, risk of not achieving glycemic target and glycemic variability from six CGM measures was investigated. Analyzes were carried out with logistic regression models (glycemic target) and general linear models (glycemic variability). Finally, CGM median profiles were examined for the identification of daily glucose excursions. RESULTS: A 4.7-fold (95% confidence interval: 1.5-15.4) increased risk of not achieving glycemic target was observed for smokers compared with nonsmokers. Increased time in hyperglycemia, decreased time in range, increased time in hypoglycemia (very low interstitial glucose), and increased fluctuation were observed for smokers compared with nonsmokers from CGM measures. CGM measures of coefficient of variation and time in hypoglycemia were not statistically significantly different. Examination of CGM median profiles revealed that risk of morning hypoglycemia is increased for smokers. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, smoking is associated with inadequate glycemic control and increased glycemic variability for people with type 1 diabetes with especially risk of morning hypoglycemia. It is important for clinicians to know that if the patient has type 1 diabetes and is smoking, a preemptive action to treat high glycated hemoglobin levels should not necessarily be treatment intensification due to the risk of hypoglycemia.