Abstract
Rationale: Suboptimal vaccine immunogenicity and antigenic mismatch, compounded by poor uptake, means that influenza remains a major global disease. T cells recognizing peptides derived from conserved viral proteins could enhance vaccine-induced cross-strain protection. Objectives: To investigate the kinetics, phenotypes, and function of influenza virus-specific CD8(+) resident memory T (Trm) cells in the lower airway and infer the molecular pathways associated with their response to infection in vivo. Methods: Healthy volunteers, aged 18-55, were inoculated intranasally with influenza A/California/4/09(H1N1). Blood, upper airway, and (in a subgroup) lower airway samples were obtained throughout infection. Symptoms were assessed by using self-reported diaries, and the nasal viral load was assessed by using quantitative PCR. T-cell responses were analyzed by using a three-color FluoroSpot assay, flow cytometry with MHC I-peptide tetramers, and RNA sequencing, with candidate markers being confirmed by using the immunohistochemistry results for endobronchial biopsy specimens. Measurements and Main Results: After challenge, 57% of participants became infected. Preexisting influenza-specific CD8(+) T cells in blood correlated strongly with a reduced viral load, which peaked at Day 3. Influenza-specific CD8(+) T cells in BAL fluid were highly enriched and predominantly expressed the Trm markers CD69 and CD103. Comparison between preinfection CD8(+) T cells in BAL fluid and blood by using RNA sequencing revealed 3,928 differentially expressed genes, including all major Trm-cell markers. However, gene set enrichment analysis of BAL-fluid CD8(+) T cells showed primarily innate cell-related pathways and, during infection, included upregulation of innate chemokines (Cxcl1, Cxcl10, and Cxcl16) that were also expressed by CD8(+) cells in bronchial tissues. Conclusions: CD8(+) Trm cells in the human lung display innate-like gene and protein expression that demonstrates blurred divisions between innate and adaptive immunity. Clinical study registered with www.clinicaltrials.gov (NCT02755948).