Abstract
Elevated levels of nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)) have been associated with adverse health outcomes in children, including reduced lung function and increased rates of asthma. Many parts of London continue to exceed the annual average NO(2) concentration of 40 µg/m(3) set by the EU directive. Using high-resolution maps of annual average NO(2) for 2016 from the London Atmospheric Emissions Inventory and detailed maps of open spaces from Britain's national mapping agency, Ordnance Survey, we estimated average NO(2) concentrations for every open space in Greater London and analysed geospatial patterns comparing Inner verses Outer London and the 32 London Boroughs. Across Greater London, 24% of play spaces, 67% of private parks and 27% of public parks had average levels of NO(2) that exceeded the EU limit for NO(2). Rates of exceedance were higher in Inner London; open spaces in the City of London had the highest average NO(2) values among all the London Boroughs. The closest play space for more than 250,000 children (14% of children) under 16 years old in Greater London had NO(2) concentrations above the recommended levels. Of these children, 66% (~165,000 children) lived in the most deprived areas of London, as measured by the Index of Multiple Deprivations, where average NO(2) concentrations in play spaces were on average 6 µg/m(3) higher than for play spaces in the least deprived quintile. More action is needed to reduce NO(2) in open spaces to safe levels through pollution reduction and mitigation efforts, as currently, open spaces in Greater London, including play spaces, parks and gardens, still have dangerously high levels of NO(2), according to the most recent NO(2) map.