Abstract
Human pregnancy is frequently accompanied by nausea and vomiting that may become severe and life-threatening, as in hyperemesis gravidarum (HG), the cause of which is unknown. Growth Differentiation Factor-15 (GDF15), a hormone known to act on the hindbrain to cause emesis, is highly expressed in the placenta and its levels in maternal blood rise rapidly in pregnancy. Variants in the maternal GDF15 gene are associated with HG. Here we report that fetal production of GDF15, and maternal sensitivity to it, both contribute substantially to the risk of HG. We found that the great majority of GDF15 in maternal circulation is derived from the feto-placental unit and that higher GDF15 levels in maternal blood are associated with vomiting and are further elevated in patients with HG. Conversely, we found that lower levels of GDF15 in the non-pregnant state predispose women to HG. A rare C211G variant in GDF15 which strongly predisposes mothers to HG, particularly when the fetus is wild-type, was found to markedly impair cellular secretion of GDF15 and associate with low circulating levels of GDF15 in the non-pregnant state. Consistent with this, two common GDF15 haplotypes which predispose to HG were associated with lower circulating levels outside pregnancy. The administration of a long-acting form of GDF15 to wild-type mice markedly reduced subsequent responses to an acute dose, establishing that desensitisation is a feature of this system. GDF15 levels are known to be highly and chronically elevated in patients with beta thalassemia. In women with this disorder, reports of symptoms of nausea or vomiting in pregnancy were strikingly diminished. Our findings support a causal role for fetal derived GDF15 in the nausea and vomiting of human pregnancy, with maternal sensitivity, at least partly determined by pre-pregnancy exposure to GDF15, being a major influence on its severity. They also suggest mechanism-based approaches to the treatment and prevention of HG.