Abstract
Behavioural and physiological markers of discrete positive emotions remain little investigated in animals. To characterise new markers in horses, we used tactile stimulations to induce emotional situation of contrasting valence. In the Gentle grooming group (G, N = 13) horses were gently groomed during 11 sessions on the body areas they appreciated the most. Horses in the Standard grooming group (S, N = 14) were groomed using a fixed procedure, reported to induce avoidance reactions in some horses. At session 11, G horses expressed significantly more contact-seeking behaviours than S horses, which expressed significantly more avoidance behaviours. This result suggests positive emotions in G horses and negative emotions in S horses. Blood cortisol, oxytocin, heart rate and heart rate variability never differed between before and after the grooming session. However, after the 11 sessions, basal oxytocin levels were lower in the G than in the S group. This difference was unexpected, but supports studies showing that a low level of basal oxytocin could be a marker of better well-being. Analyses of facial expressions during grooming revealed significant differences between groups. These expressions appear to be more sensitive than behavioural indicators because they alone enabled differentiating emotions according to the group when horses were re-exposed to neutral grooming one year after the treatment.