Abstract
PURPOSE: Automated distinct bone segmentation has many applications in planning and navigation tasks. 3D U-Nets have previously been used to segment distinct bones in the upper body, but their performance is not yet optimal. Their most substantial source of error lies not in confusing one bone for another, but in confusing background with bone-tissue. METHODS: In this work, we propose binary-prediction-enhanced multi-class (BEM) inference, which takes into account an additional binary background/bone-tissue prediction, to improve the multi-class distinct bone segmentation. We evaluate the method using different ways of obtaining the binary prediction, contrasting a two-stage approach to four networks with two segmentation heads. We perform our experiments on two datasets: An in-house dataset comprising 16 upper-body CT scans with voxelwise labelling into 126 distinct classes, and a public dataset containing 50 synthetic CT scans, with 41 different classes. RESULTS: The most successful network with two segmentation heads achieves a class-median Dice coefficient of 0.85 on cross-validation with the upper-body CT dataset. These results outperform both our previously published 3D U-Net baseline with standard inference, and previously reported results from other groups. On the synthetic dataset, we also obtain improved results when using BEM-inference. CONCLUSION: Using a binary bone-tissue/background prediction as guidance during inference improves distinct bone segmentation from upper-body CT scans and from the synthetic dataset. The results are robust to multiple ways of obtaining the bone-tissue segmentation and hold for the two-stage approach as well as for networks with two segmentation heads.