Abstract
This paper adopted an inter-indicator analytical approach to investigate the state of energy poverty in Rwanda. It used a nationally representative sample of 14458 households from Rwanda's Integrated Living Standard Survey conducted between October 2016 and October 2017. The first indicator entailed a multidimensional analysis of energy poverty using eleven pointers of energy deprivation. Each pointer was assigned a weight using principal component analysis to form a household energy poverty index. The paper also employed a 'modified' expenditure-based approach that emphasizes affordability and accessibility. This is the approach on which the second indicator of energy poverty was based. This constituted an examination of different levels of household income and energy expenditure patterns as well as the use of biomass for cooking. The results from the multidimensional analysis revealed that the most energy-poor households were concentrated in the southern (30.15%), western (27.69%) and northern (24.86%) provinces of Rwanda. In contrast, 'the least energy-poor are mostly found in urban areas of the country. A cross-comparison with the second approach showed different magnitudes of energy poverty incidences. Nonetheless, similar trends were observed in terms of areas of concentration of energy poverty. Last, the results from multilevel binary logistic regressions showed that household size, income poverty, education level of the head of the family, rural location and Kigali residentship were determinants of energy poverty.