Inhibition of indoxyl sulfate-induced intrarenal renin-angiotensin system activation: targeting the aryl hydrocarbon receptor

Indoxyl sulfate, a protein-bound uremic toxin, leads to CKD (chronic kidney disease) progression and its complications through the activation of AhR (aryl hydrocarbon receptor) and RAS (renin-angiotensin system). Inhibition of these pathways may slow the development of CKD and CKD-associated complications.