Abstract
Tropical mountain ecosystems harbor diverse biological communities, making them valuable models for exploring the factors that shape ecological interactions along environmental gradients. We investigated the spatial and temporal drivers of plant-hummingbird interaction networks across three forest types (pine-oak, fir, and subalpine) along a tropical high mountain gradient in western Mexico (2400 to 3700 m.a.s.l.). We measured species abundance, diversity, morphology, and interaction frequencies. Plant diversity metrics significantly declined in the highest elevation subalpine forest, whereas hummingbird diversity remained consistent across elevations. Interaction networks were similarly nested across elevations, but they were more specialized in the subalpine forest, where lower plant species richness and higher floral abundance led to greater resource partitioning among hummingbirds. Plant-hummingbird networks were larger and less specialized during the dry season, driven by greater species diversity and abundance. Species turnover explained network variation along the elevational gradient, while interaction rewiring and the arrival of migratory hummingbirds explained changes between seasons. Phenological overlap was the most important driver of the observed variation in interaction frequencies across elevations and seasons. Flower abundance had a minor influence on interaction frequencies at low- and mid-elevation networks, and hummingbird abundance was significant for dry- and rainy-season networks. Morphological matching was significant in the low-elevation forest and in the dry season. Plant phylogenetic relatedness had negligible effects on interaction patterns, but hummingbird phylogeny influenced feeding preferences in high-elevation and rainy-season networks. Our findings highlight the role of species turnover, interaction rewiring, and phenological overlap in structuring plant-hummingbird networks, with specific effects of abundance, morphology, and phylogeny varying with elevation and season. High-elevation ecosystems play a crucial role as reservoirs of floral resources for both resident and migratory hummingbirds during resource-scarce periods, emphasizing their importance in maintaining biodiversity in tropical mountain gradients.