Abstract
Although intraindividual variability (IIV) in behavior is fundamental to ecological dynamics, the factors that contribute to the expression of IIV are poorly understood. Using an individual-based model, this study examined the effects of stochasticity on the evolution of IIV represented by the residual variability of behavior. The model describes a population of prey with nonoverlapping generations, in which prey take refuge upon encountering a predator. The strategy of a prey is characterized by the mean and IIV (i.e., standard deviation) of hiding duration. Prey with no IIV will spend the same duration hiding in a refuge at each predator encounter, while prey with IIV will have variable hiding durations among encounters. For the sources of stochasticity, within-generation stochasticity (represented by random predator encounters) and between-generation stochasticity (represented by random resource availability) were considered. Analysis of the model indicates that individuals with high levels of IIV are maintained in a population in the presence of between-generation stochasticity even though the optimal strategy in each generation is a strategy with no IIV, regardless of the presence or absence of within-generation stochasticity. This contradictory pattern emerges because the mean behavioral trait and IIV do not independently influence fitness (e.g., the sign of the selection gradient with respect to IIV depends on the mean trait). Consequently, even when evolution eventually leads toward a strategy with no IIV (i.e., the optimal strategy), greater IIV may be transiently selected. Between-generation stochasticity consistently imposes such transient selection and maintain high levels of IIV in a population.