Abstract
Our bone health as an adult is defined by patterns of development in early life, with perturbed growth during fetal and neonatal periods predisposing individuals to poor bone health in adulthood. Studies have identified poor maternal diet during pregnancy as a critical factor in shaping offspring bone development, with significant impacts on adult bone structure and health. However, the association between a father's diet and the bone health of his offspring remains poorly defined. To address this knowledge gap, we fed male C57BL/6 mice either a control normal protein diet (NPD; 18% protein) or an isocaloric low-protein diet (LPD; 9% protein) for a minimum of 8 wk. Using these males, we generated offspring through artificial insemination, in combination with vasectomized male mating. Using this approach, we derived offspring from either NPD or LPD sperm but in the presence of NPD or LPD seminal plasma. Using micro-computed tomography and synchrotron X-ray diffraction, we observed significant changes in offspring femur morphology and hydroxyapatite crystallographic parameters from just 3 wk of age in offspring derived from LPD sperm or seminal plasma. We also observed that differential femur morphology and hydroxyapatite crystallographic parameters were maintained into adulthood and into a second generation. Analysis of paternal sperm identified a down regulation of 26 osteogenic genes associated with extracellular matrix levels and maintenance, transcription and growth factors, and bone ossification. These observations indicate that poor paternal diet at the time of conception affects offspring bone development and morphology in an age and generation specific manner.