Abstract
Many different cellular systems and molecular processes become compromised in Alzheimer's disease (AD) including proteostasis, autophagy, inflammatory responses, synapse and neuronal circuitry, and mitochondrial function. We focused in this study on mitochondrial dysfunction owing to the toxic neuronal environment produced by expression of Aβ42, and its relationship to other pathologies found in AD including increased neuronal apoptosis, plaque deposition, and memory impairment. Using super-resolution microscopy, we have assayed mitochondrial status in the three distinct neuronal compartments (somatic, dendritic, axonal) of mushroom body neurons of Drosophila expressing Aβ42. The mushroom body neurons comprise a major center for olfactory memory formation in insects. We employed calcium imaging to measure mitochondrial function, immunohistochemical and staining techniques to measure apoptosis and plaque formation, and olfactory classical conditioning to measure learning. We found that mitochondria become fragmented at a very early age along with decreased function measured by mitochondrial calcium entry. Increased apoptosis and plaque deposition also occur early, yet interestingly, a learning impairment was found only after a much longer period of time-10 days, which is a large fraction of the fly's lifespan. This is similar to the pronounced delay between cellular pathologies and the emergence of a memory dysfunction in humans. Our studies are consistent with the model that mitochondrial dysfunction and/or other cellular pathologies emerge at an early age and lead to much later learning impairments. The results obtained further develop this Drosophila model as a useful in vivo system for probing the mechanisms by which Aβ42 produces mitochondrial and other cellular toxicities that produce memory dysfunction.