Abstract
C(4) photosynthesis outperforms the ancestral C(3) state in a wide range of natural and agro-ecosystems by affording higher water-use and nitrogen-use efficiencies. It therefore represents a prime target for engineering novel, high-yielding crops by introducing the trait into C(3) backgrounds. However, the genetic architecture of C(4) photosynthesis remains largely unknown. To define the divergence in gene expression modules between C(3) and C(4) photosynthesis during leaf ontogeny, we generated comprehensive transcriptome atlases of two Cleomaceae species, Gynandropsis gynandra (C(4)) and Tarenaya hassleriana (C(3)), by RNA sequencing. Overall, the gene expression profiles appear remarkably similar between the C(3) and C(4) species. We found that known C(4) genes were recruited to photosynthesis from different expression domains in C(3), including typical housekeeping gene expression patterns in various tissues as well as individual heterotrophic tissues. Furthermore, we identified a structure-related module recruited from the C(3) root. Comparison of gene expression patterns with anatomy during leaf ontogeny provided insight into genetic features of Kranz anatomy. Altered expression of developmental factors and cell cycle genes is associated with a higher degree of endoreduplication in enlarged C(4) bundle sheath cells. A delay in mesophyll differentiation apparent both in the leaf anatomy and the transcriptome allows for extended vein formation in the C(4) leaf.