Abstract
For 40 years, Intron Retention (IR) was dismissed as splicing noise and is now recognized as a dynamic and evolutionarily conserved mechanism of post-transcriptional gene regulation. Unlike canonical splicing, which excises all introns from pre-mRNAs, IR selectively retains intronic sequences, albeit at seemingly random places; however, current research now reveals that this process is strategic in its retention. IR influences mRNA stability, localization, and translational potential. Retained introns can lead to nonsense-mediated decay, promote nuclear retention, or give rise to novel protein isoforms that contribute to expanding proteomic and transcriptomic profiles. IR is finely regulated by splice site strength, splicing regulatory elements, chromatin structure, methylation patterns, RNA polymerase II elongation rates, and the availability of co-transcriptional splicing factors. IR plays critical roles in cell-type and tissue-specific gene expression with observed patterns, particularly during neuronal, cardiac, hematopoietic, and immune development. It also functions as a molecular switch during cellular responses to environmental and physiological stressors such as hypoxia, heat shock, and infection. Dysregulated IR is increasingly associated with cancer, neurodegeneration, aging, and immune dysfunction, where it may alter protein function, suppress tumor suppressor genes, or generate immunogenic neoepitopes. Experimental and computational tools like RNA-seq, RT-PCR, IRFinder, and IntEREst have enabled transcriptome-wide detection and validation of IR events, uncovering their widespread functional roles. This review will examine current knowledge on the function, regulation, and detection of IR, and also summarize recent advances in understanding its role in both normal and pathophysiological settings.