Abstract
The milk glycobiome has a significant impact on the gut microbiota of infants, which plays a pivotal role in health and development. Fucosylated human milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) and N-glycans on milk proteins are beneficial for the development of healthy gut microbiota, and the fucosylation levels of these glycans can be affected by the maternal fucosyltransferase 2 gene (FUT2). Here, we present results of longitudinal research on paired milk and stool samples from 56 Chinese mothers (CMs) and their breast-fed children. Changes of HMOs and fucosylated N-glycans in milk of CMs at different lactation stages were detected, which allowed characterization of the major differences in milk glycans and consequential effects on the gut microbiome of infants according to maternal FUT2 status. Significant differences in the abundance of total and fucosylated HMOs between secretor and nonsecretor CMs were noted, especially during early lactation. Despite a tendency toward decreasing milk protein concentrations, the fucosylation levels of milk N-glycans increased during late lactation. The changes in the levels of fucosylated HMOs and milk N-glycans were highly correlated with the growth of Bifidobacterium spp. and Lactobacillus spp. in the gut of infants during early and later lactation, respectively. Enriched expression of genes encoding glycoside hydrolases, glycosyl transferases, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, and permeases in infants fed by secretor CMs contributed to the promotion of these bacteria in infants. Our data highlight the important role of fucosylated milk glycans in shaping the gut microbiome of infants and provide a solid foundation for development of "personalized" nutrition for Chinese infants. IMPORTANCE Human milk glycans provide a broad range of carbon sources for gut microbes in infants. Levels of protein glycosylation in human milk vary during lactation and may also be affected by the stages of gestation and lactation and by the secretor status of the mother. This was the first study to evaluate systematically dynamic changes in human milk oligosaccharides and fucosylated N-glycans in the milk of Chinese mothers with different secretor statuses during 6 months of lactation. Given the unique single nucleotide polymorphism site (rs1047781, A385T) on the fucosyltransferase 2 gene among Chinese populations, our report provides a specific insight into the milk glycobiome of Chinese mothers, which may exert effects on the gut microbiota of infants that differ from findings from other study cohorts.